Sanctions and Environmental Crimes in Iran: Evidence and Mechanisms

Economic sanctions are a central tool used by the United States [1], the European Union (EU), and the United Nations (UN) to respond to actions of specific countries that undermine international norms or national security. Yet, one often overlooked consequence is their role in fostering environmental crimes. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) defines environmental crimes as “illegal activities harming the environment and aimed at benefiting individuals or groups or companies from the exploitation of, damage to, trade or theft of natural resources, including, but not limited to, serious crimes and transnational organized crime”. [2] This encompasses illegal wildlife trade, pollution offenses, trafficking of prohibited chemicals, illegal fishing, logging, and mining. Iran illustrates this problem. Studies by Rabani et al. [3] show that most environmental crimes there stem from ecosystem degradation—48% in forests and rangelands, 35% in wetlands, 17% in mo